Fig. 3

Recombination rate evolution in Hymenoptera. Recombination rates in the solitary outgroup (Drosophila melanogaster (1.6 cM/Mb), as well as solitary Hymenoptera Nasonia spp (1.5 cM/Mb), Habrobracon hebetor (4.8 cM/Mb), and Megachile rotundata (1.0 cM/Mb) are generally low, while advanced eusocial species always exhibit higher estimates, including the newly studied stingless bee Frieseomellita varia (12.5 cM/Mb). However, estimates in honey bees remain particularly high (Apis florea: 20.8 cM/Mb, A. mellifera: 21.6 cM/Mb, A. cerana: 17.4 cM/Mb, and Apis dorsata: 25.1 cM/Mb), even when compared to other eusocial Hymenoptera, including ants (Acromyrmex echinatior: 6.4 cM/Mb and Pogonomyrmex rugosus: 14.0 cM/Mb), Bumble bees (Bombus terrestris: 8.9 cM/Mb), and wasps (Vespula vulgaris: 9.7 cM/Mb). The horizontal axis depicts approximate time, illustrating divergence between species. Recombination rate data sources: [18,19,20,21,22,23, 34, 40, 61, 62]. The tips of the tree are colored according to recombination rate estimates. ML ancestral states at each node are estimated by fastAnc() function of Phytools and colored on the same gradient [63]